Who were the Celts?
There are a number of problems associated with the identification of the
Celts. Most written texts concerning the
Celts are Greek or Roman, who named the Gauls Keltoi, Celtae, Galli or Galatae. Confusion lies in whether these were one
ethnic group.
Caesar divided Gaul into three parts, one of which was the Celtae, all of whom spoke different languages. The inhabitants of Britain and Ireland were never called Celts by Caesar and other Classical writers.
Some historians argue that the Celts were any people who spoke a Celtic language, however language is not always an indicator of ethnicity. Others classify the Celts by archaeology, or the material culture of similar objects linked to the Celts.
Place-names were used by historians to piece together the beginnings of the Celtic language. For example, the city named Lyons in Latin was known by the Celts as Logudunum (Note: ‘dun’ indicates a fort).
The chronology of the Celts is divided into a number of distinct cultures. Urnfield culture was distinguished by the Bronze Age burial practice used all over central Europe. The dead were cremated in urns or buried in flat graves. Hallstatt culture was named after a town in Austria were extensive salt mines were found and is dated to around 1200-475 BCE. This period is divided into sections labelled A and B (1200-800), C (800-600 BCE) and D (600-475 BCE) and extended over most of central Europe, parts of Spain and Britain. During A and B, the Celts were not highly developed socially, and were probably ruled by small chieftains. Long distance trade was beginning to develop, along with hillforts. The most recognisable Celtic culture is C and D. During this time people were buried with four-wheeled wagons and rich grave goods. The Celts lived in fortified settlements, showing increased wealth and social stratification. D was the peak of the Halstatt culture, showing evidence of more hillforts and rich burials. Trade was central to the Celtic economy and contact with the Greeks and Etruscans was likely.
The La Tène culture was named after a town in Switzerland. It was an Iron Age culture divided into A, B and C, lasting from around 475 to 50 BCE. The art style from this period was well-known as uniquely Celtic, developed from a Greek style. During this time the large hillforts were abandoned, probably for either political or economic reasons. Rich burials also ceased. There was a rise of a warrior class, probably as a result of increased wealth and the need to defend it. Two-wheeled chariot burials with weapons became common. In Britain, there were links to the earlier Hallstatt culture, but little evidence of the La Tène.
The Roman Period of Celtic history lasted from 50 BCE to 500 CE, and was marked by the Roman conquest of the Celts. For this inquiry topic, you will be focusing on the Roman Period in Britain, although this requires some understanding of the early history of Britain.
Iron Age Britain
The Iron Age of the British Isles covers the period from about 800 BCE to the Roman invasion of 43 CE and follows on from the Bronze Age. As the name implies, the Iron Age saw the gradual introduction of iron working technology, although the general adoption of iron artefacts did not become widespread until after 500-400 BCE.
As the Iron Age progressed through the first millennium BCE, strong regional groupings emerged, reflected in styles of pottery, metal objects and settlement types. In some areas, 'tribal' states and kingdoms developed by the end of the first century BCE.
However, archaeology can demonstrate that the trading and exchange contacts between Britain and mainland Europe that had developed in the Bronze Age continued throughout the Iron Age.
The population of Britain grew substantially during the Iron Age and probably exceeded one million. This population growth was partly made possible by the introduction of new crops, including improved varieties of barley and wheat, and increased farming of peas, beans, flax and other crops.
Growing Roman influence
Towards the end of the second century BCE, Roman influence began to extend into the western Mediterranean and southern France. This lead to growing contact between Britain and the Roman world across the English Channel. Initially this contact was confined to the trading of limited quantities of Roman luxury goods such as wine, probably exchanged for slaves, minerals and grain through sites like Hengistbury Head in Dorset and Mount Batten near Plymouth in Devon. After 50 BCE and the conquest of Gaul (modern France) by Julius Caesar, this trade intensified and focused on south east England.
In addition to intensive trade links, Rome appears to have established diplomatic relations with a number of tribes and may have exerted considerable political influence before the Roman conquest of England in 43 CE.
After 43 CE, all of Wales and England south of the line of Hadrian's Wall became part of the Roman empire. Beyond this line, in Scotland and Ireland, Iron Age life and traditions continued with only occasional Roman incursions into Scotland, and trade with Ireland.
One of our most useful primary sources about Roman Britain is the Greek geographer and historian, Strabo, whose work Geography is a collection of knowledge from the known world. Overall, Strabo claims to have traveled widely, but lapses in his knowledge indicate that his journeys were limited in scope and duration.
15 of the 17 books of the Geography are divided according to the regions covered. Books 3-10 describe Europe; 11-16, Asia (Minor); and 17, Africa. Not surprisingly, the Books dealing with the Greek world (8-10) have Homer as the guide, and this may account for some of the errors.
Strabo's views on Rome are generally positive. He admires the machinery of the Empire and the efficiency of one-man rule, and he shows no emotion in describing the subjugation of his native Pontus. The loss of independence, apparently, was seen as a small price for good government.
Questions
1. Using the sources provided, list the personality traits and characteristics the Romans used to describe the people of Britain.
2. Create a table outlining the differences between Urnfield, Hallstatt, La Tène and Roman Culture. Leave room for more details to be added from other workstations (approximately one A4 page).
3. Use the map and a code to match the coins to their Iron Age British tribes.
Caesar divided Gaul into three parts, one of which was the Celtae, all of whom spoke different languages. The inhabitants of Britain and Ireland were never called Celts by Caesar and other Classical writers.
Some historians argue that the Celts were any people who spoke a Celtic language, however language is not always an indicator of ethnicity. Others classify the Celts by archaeology, or the material culture of similar objects linked to the Celts.
Place-names were used by historians to piece together the beginnings of the Celtic language. For example, the city named Lyons in Latin was known by the Celts as Logudunum (Note: ‘dun’ indicates a fort).
The chronology of the Celts is divided into a number of distinct cultures. Urnfield culture was distinguished by the Bronze Age burial practice used all over central Europe. The dead were cremated in urns or buried in flat graves. Hallstatt culture was named after a town in Austria were extensive salt mines were found and is dated to around 1200-475 BCE. This period is divided into sections labelled A and B (1200-800), C (800-600 BCE) and D (600-475 BCE) and extended over most of central Europe, parts of Spain and Britain. During A and B, the Celts were not highly developed socially, and were probably ruled by small chieftains. Long distance trade was beginning to develop, along with hillforts. The most recognisable Celtic culture is C and D. During this time people were buried with four-wheeled wagons and rich grave goods. The Celts lived in fortified settlements, showing increased wealth and social stratification. D was the peak of the Halstatt culture, showing evidence of more hillforts and rich burials. Trade was central to the Celtic economy and contact with the Greeks and Etruscans was likely.
The La Tène culture was named after a town in Switzerland. It was an Iron Age culture divided into A, B and C, lasting from around 475 to 50 BCE. The art style from this period was well-known as uniquely Celtic, developed from a Greek style. During this time the large hillforts were abandoned, probably for either political or economic reasons. Rich burials also ceased. There was a rise of a warrior class, probably as a result of increased wealth and the need to defend it. Two-wheeled chariot burials with weapons became common. In Britain, there were links to the earlier Hallstatt culture, but little evidence of the La Tène.
The Roman Period of Celtic history lasted from 50 BCE to 500 CE, and was marked by the Roman conquest of the Celts. For this inquiry topic, you will be focusing on the Roman Period in Britain, although this requires some understanding of the early history of Britain.
Iron Age Britain
The Iron Age of the British Isles covers the period from about 800 BCE to the Roman invasion of 43 CE and follows on from the Bronze Age. As the name implies, the Iron Age saw the gradual introduction of iron working technology, although the general adoption of iron artefacts did not become widespread until after 500-400 BCE.
As the Iron Age progressed through the first millennium BCE, strong regional groupings emerged, reflected in styles of pottery, metal objects and settlement types. In some areas, 'tribal' states and kingdoms developed by the end of the first century BCE.
However, archaeology can demonstrate that the trading and exchange contacts between Britain and mainland Europe that had developed in the Bronze Age continued throughout the Iron Age.
The population of Britain grew substantially during the Iron Age and probably exceeded one million. This population growth was partly made possible by the introduction of new crops, including improved varieties of barley and wheat, and increased farming of peas, beans, flax and other crops.
Growing Roman influence
Towards the end of the second century BCE, Roman influence began to extend into the western Mediterranean and southern France. This lead to growing contact between Britain and the Roman world across the English Channel. Initially this contact was confined to the trading of limited quantities of Roman luxury goods such as wine, probably exchanged for slaves, minerals and grain through sites like Hengistbury Head in Dorset and Mount Batten near Plymouth in Devon. After 50 BCE and the conquest of Gaul (modern France) by Julius Caesar, this trade intensified and focused on south east England.
In addition to intensive trade links, Rome appears to have established diplomatic relations with a number of tribes and may have exerted considerable political influence before the Roman conquest of England in 43 CE.
After 43 CE, all of Wales and England south of the line of Hadrian's Wall became part of the Roman empire. Beyond this line, in Scotland and Ireland, Iron Age life and traditions continued with only occasional Roman incursions into Scotland, and trade with Ireland.
One of our most useful primary sources about Roman Britain is the Greek geographer and historian, Strabo, whose work Geography is a collection of knowledge from the known world. Overall, Strabo claims to have traveled widely, but lapses in his knowledge indicate that his journeys were limited in scope and duration.
15 of the 17 books of the Geography are divided according to the regions covered. Books 3-10 describe Europe; 11-16, Asia (Minor); and 17, Africa. Not surprisingly, the Books dealing with the Greek world (8-10) have Homer as the guide, and this may account for some of the errors.
Strabo's views on Rome are generally positive. He admires the machinery of the Empire and the efficiency of one-man rule, and he shows no emotion in describing the subjugation of his native Pontus. The loss of independence, apparently, was seen as a small price for good government.
Questions
1. Using the sources provided, list the personality traits and characteristics the Romans used to describe the people of Britain.
2. Create a table outlining the differences between Urnfield, Hallstatt, La Tène and Roman Culture. Leave room for more details to be added from other workstations (approximately one A4 page).
3. Use the map and a code to match the coins to their Iron Age British tribes.